Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Food Education Project in Byron, CA
By Antonia Demas, Ph.D. and Meredith Reilly
CASE STUDY
Can vegetables cure crime?
Using the CARROT instead of the STICK
INTRODUCTION
In 2003, the Food is Elementary curriculum was adapted for incarcerated youth at the Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Facility (OAYRF) in Byron, California. This residential correctional facility was dedicated to rehabilitating juvenile offenders and preparing them for successful reintegration into society. The facility served up to 100 males ages 12 to 25 and provided a variety of programs designed to meet the needs of the youth through education, vocational training, mental health counseling, and life skills development programs. The Food is Elementary pilot study enhanced these programs by focusing on education on nutrition, culinary arts and gardening. The goal was two-fold: in addition to educating students and staff, the gardening component was aimed at reducing food costs for the facility. Although the Food is Elementary program was successful, the Orin Allen Facility closed its doors in 2023 due to a shrinking youth population and increased cost to maintain and repair the facility.
RATIONALE
The need for education about the relationship between diet and disease is clear. We are experiencing a crisis among our youth that is unprecedented in terms of the epidemic of diet-related diseases such as obesity, Type 2 Diabetes, and heart disease. These diseases use to be considered as adult diseases and they are currently affecting our children as young as age seven. The nation’s health is at risk due to the growing prevalence of obesity and its related diseases.
Not only are our youth at risk for many of the diet-related diseases that previously appeared in adulthood, but they are also at risk for developing increasingly anti-social behaviors. These behaviors range from Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), (usually treated with drugs) to violent crimes such as murder. Never before have our schools been plagued with such violence that has resulted in teacher and student deaths. In terms of treatment, rarely is diet considered as a therapy, despite the fact that there is evidence that diet is related to behavior. Indeed, most schools provide a model of what NOT to eat with fast foods being the primary choice. There have been very few controlled studies in this area.
Clearly, our children are at risk for diet-related diseases and developing behaviors that can be prevented through a health-promoting diet combined with education. The primary treatment strategy in the United States has been to prescribe drugs and utilize behavior modification techniques. These strategies do not appear to be working. With current dissatisfaction with the traditional medical model at an all-time high (at least half of all patients are looking to Alternative Medicine for answers) we need to seriously look at diet as a remedy for improving the health and behavior of our youth.
Nutritious food is an inexpensive potential solution to many of the problems facing contemporary American culture. We need to conduct research in this area to determine the impact food can play on our intellectual, emotional, and physical lives.
DIET AND BEHAVIOR RESEARCH OVERVIEW
The idea that diet affects behavior is as old as human history. Throughout every era of which we have a record, food has had a role in treating illness and controlling aspects of behavior. Indeed, food was often used in the same way that we use drugs today (many of our contemporary drugs are plant derivatives). Hippocrates said, “Old men bear the want of food best, then those that are full-grown, youths bear it least, most especially children, and of them, the most lively are the least capable of enduring it.” Childhood is a unique period of development when we experience rapid growth, both mentally and physically. Our bodies and minds demand quality nutrients to ensure proper growth and development during childhood, yet all too often we don’t pay enough attention to these special needs.
In the 1970’s, parts of the scientific community began to take a serious look at the idea that diet affects behavior in significant ways. In many cases, these claims of behavioral effects are valid. Unfortunately, some of the studies are supported by insufficient or anecdotal evidence. We clearly need to conduct more experimental research to distinguish effective nutritional strategies from those that fall into the category of nutritional “fads”. Current research is beginning to explore specific pathways through which nutrients provided through food intake have the ability to affect changes in mood, emotions, health and behavior.
J. Breakey’s review of studies conducted between 1985 and 1995 (Crime Times, Vol 4, No. 1) reveals a clear relationship between diet and behavior. Most of these studies show dietary changes resulting in significant behavior changes. More research needs to be done so that we can determine with confidence the connection that food plays on behavior. The studies in the literature primarily use vitamin and mineral supplements as the intervention rather than using specific foods. The discovery of phytochemicals, available in whole plant foods not through supplements, and their role in protecting against disease development, supports exploring a nutrient-rich diet further.
Crime prevention has not been addressed using nutrition as a strategy. Most young offenders never consider that their diets may play a role in how they think or act. Contemporary American diets are so plagued by nutrient-poor, calorie-rich items, where deficiencies and imbalances arise that certainly contribute to the negative mental processes often associated with criminality. Depression, erratic or low blood sugar, ADD, ADHD, and intolerance or allergies for certain food or beverage are some of the factors that ought to be considered when planning nutrition programs for schools, prisons and detention centers. It is in these institutions that the mental outlook of this population can and should be aimed toward a positive life. Nutrition is a key ingredient that is frequently overlooked.
Supplies of minerals to the body also affect the brain and behavior. Thiamin deficiencies lead to impulsive, irritable and aggressive behavior, which can be improved through thiamin supplementation. Iron deficiencies are also known to lead to aggression. Iron deficiencies occurred twice as often in adolescents in prison than in those out of prison (Alpern 2).
DIETARY ELEMENTS CHANGE BEHAVIOR: EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATION
This picture was drawn by a five-year old who had severe anger problems that he referred to as “the Means” (http://www.livingwithout.com). His behavior drastically improved after artificial colors, flavors and preservatives were removed from his diet.
PRE-PILOT PHASE
Plan for an Integrated Curriculum at the Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Center
Initiation of Pilot
This program at Byron, CA was instituted because of the success of the Bay Point project in Miami, Florida, and a desire to expand the general strategy developed at Bay Point to another school for at-risk teens. Michele Simon, Director of the Center for Informed Food Choices, a Bay Area non-profit, was able to locate the Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Center (formerly called the Byron School for Boys and also called Delta Vista High School), in Byron, CA., located at the edge of the East Bay, about an hour and a half northeast of San Francisco.
The Byron School expressed interest in discussing a collaboration because they had recently received funds for an organic garden from the Health Department of California. The garden was in the process of being developed under the guidance of Dan Smith, referred to as “Farmer Dan” by the students and staff. The school had identified a need to have a nutrition component combined with the gardening program.
School Background and Demographics
The Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Center, under the umbrella of the Contra Costa County Office of Education, has the following mission: “To provide a safe, positively structured educational program within a residential facility, which emphasizes the assessment and development of basic academic, life, and employability skills and pro-social behavior.” The school serves male students who have become involved with the Juvenile Justice System as a result of a crime that they have committed.
The school, led by Principal Michael Grimes, has approximately 100 boys, ages 12 – 18. An academic program at Byron is combined with support services and extra curricular activities including job skills 40% of the school population is African American, 26% are White, 29% are Hispanic, and 4% are Asian, Pacific Islander, or American Indian. Prior to attending the Delta Vista High School (part of the Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Facility) students spend four days at the Mt. McKinley Assessment Center so that an Individualized Learning Plan can be determined for them. The average length of stay is approximately six months but can last up to a year. Students are monitored 24 hours a day and all of their meals are prepared and served at the school. Approximately 41% of the students have been sent to Byron previously. [1]
Plan for Byron
Based on the promising results of the Miami Bay point School for Boys, Dr. Demas was invited to apply for a gardening grant and work with staff to integrate the garden with a nutrition program.
On April 2, 2002, a meeting was held at the Byron school with Antonia Demas, Michele Simon, Mike Grimes, (principal) Jena Fiel, (health department), Dan Smith, (gardening instructor) Irene, (probation) and Lynette Martelle (culinary instructor.). The purpose of this meeting was to discuss a plan for a collaborative effort in which the school staff would receive training in terms of nutrition education that would be linked to the school gardening program. The school personnel discussed the fact that any produce grown in the garden was not consumed by the students – it was donated to indigent people in Richmond, a community with a large percentage of poor people. While the students learned that it is important to give back to the community by donating their produce, they were not able to learn about how delicious these foods tasted by doing so.
During this meeting, we decided to initiate a culinary arts program to be run in tandem with the gardening program. Lynette Martelle agreed to run the culinary program. An objective was to focus on foods from the garden and develop recipes and nutritional information around them. It was decided that Mr. Smith would provide Antonia Demas a list of the crops that were being grown in the garden and that she would develop a curriculum around them and that this curriculum would include recipes for the culinary arts program.
Antonia Demas agreed to develop a curriculum specific to the foods available from the garden and coordinated with the culinary program. The school agreed to provide necessary staff time to implement this plan. We discussed the fact that the Health Department was planning an open house on May 29, 2002. We decided that the open house would be an opportunity to showcase this curriculum to the public. The training of staff and students with the curriculum took place on the 23rd and 24th of May. During this time the students and staff learned nutrition concepts through hands-on experimentation with materials that they were able to demonstrate to the public. The day preceding the open house, May 28, was spent in making visual materials and preparing some of the recipes that would be sampled by the public.
Curriculum Development
The plan was to integrate and coordinate the garden project with the culinary project so that the two projects supported each other educationally. The Food is Elementary (FIE) curriculum was adapted to suit the specific needs of the students and staff at the Orin Allen Facility. The curriculum designed in the pre-pilot phase of this project had the following learning outcomes:
- How and why soil health affects human nutrition.
- The role nutrition plays in human health and behavior – why we literally are what we eat.
- How to utilize produce as it ripens and prepare it in nutritious and delicious ways.
- How to prepare a wide range of vegetable recipes that are culturally-based and consumed in the menu.
Students gained an appreciation and understanding of the role diet plays in their health and behavior. The educational concentration of the organic garden focused on soil health. There were some obstacles related to soil and water contamination but staff addressed these issues by purchasing a large tank to hold clean water and working on soil testing to ensure proper amounts of nutrients. A meeting at the Knoll Organic Farm, a neighbor to the school, established a supportive connection for Farmer Dan Smith. The main need of the gardening program was to integrate various components of organic gardening so that students understood the importance of soil health to human nutrition.
The garden curriculum was designed to teach students about the importance of building the fertility of the soil so that it will optimally support vegetable and herb production. Composting, soil chemistry, water and light requirements of various crops are all part of the gardening program. In addition, students learned about remedies for disease and insect problems when growing different plants organically. The nutrient requirements of the plants are linked to the nutrients available to humans when they consume that plant.
The culinary training focused on nutrition and its effect upon human health. Students learned why they need to consume various nutrients and in which foods these nutrients are most prevalent. They also learned about some of the health consequences that occur when the diet is deficient in these nutrients. The culinary program taught students to prepare foods that are rich sources of various nutrients. They prepared the foods available from the garden in a variety of culturally diverse recipes to demonstrate that the same food can taste very differently depending upon the way it is prepared. The foods were evaluated for taste by the students to ensure that they are acceptable and delicious. Artistic presentation of the recipes was stressed. The curriculum provided background materials concerning the agricultural and culinary history of the various foods grown in the garden and prepared in the culinary program.
Training
The gardening and culinary program were taught to the staff and students during a two-day workshop. A goal of the training was to ensure that students and staff have a clear understanding of why they need to concentrate on healthy soil for healthy people. During and after the training, students and staff were advised to keep journals and record what they learned. They worked on graphics to educate others visually about this information, along with doing hands-on activities that demonstrate these concepts. When it was clear that the students understood these concepts, they practiced communicating these ideas to the group.
Meredith Reilly, a student at Cornell University who had completed independent study work with Antonia Demas, was very interested in this project. She recognized that the training would be a valuable educational experience and arranged to be in California during that time. Meredith’s friend, Mary, a graphic artist, volunteered to assist with artwork during the training. Both Meredith and Mary were present and assisted during the entire training period which was taught by Antonia Demas. Meredith also arranged to be present at Byron during the next semester, for which she received independent study credit from Cornell by implementing the pilot phase of the program and teaching Food is Elementary to staff and students.
The school’s open house took place on May 29, 2002. The integrated soil and culinary nutrition project were featured at the open house. Garden tours, led by students and Farmer Dan, took place when the public arrived. Students gave presentations about the garden and the foods grown in it. They demonstrated the nutrition concepts and culinary techniques they had learned. Educational posters made by the students, showcased what they had learned. Samples of the delicious recipes that the students had prepared were offered. The students described the cooking process involved in preparing these foods from the garden and recognized the nutrient content of the various ingredients. A luncheon prepared by the students was the culminating event. The open house was very successful by all accounts. The students had an opportunity to effectively communicate what they had learned and nurture the audience through healthy, delicious foods they had prepared.
Pre and Post Testing
During the pre-pilot phase, when the initial training of staff and students was done, students were given a pre-test to determine their level of basic knowledge about food and nutrition. (See Appendix). After they had gone through the four days of learning the nutrition curriculum, the same test was given to them. The results are as follows:
| Student | Pre-test | Post-test | Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| JC | -3 | -1 | +2 |
| JR | -3 | -0 | +3 |
| TL | -7 | -2 | +5 |
| RA | -9 | -2 | +7 |
| BM | -5 | -3 | +2 |
| RF | -12 | -8 | +4 |
| TT | -7 | -0 | +7 |
| TF | -3 | -1 | +2 |
| VB | -4 | -0 | +4 |
| BK | -11 | -1 | +10 |
| JE | -3 | -0 | +3 |
| JM | -11 | -1 | +10 |
| MP | -6 | -0 | +6 |
| PD | -16 | -3 | +13 |
Results
All of the students showed an improvement in their test scores after they were taught the nutrition curriculum with a statistically significant mean increase in scores. Because the curriculum is sensory-based, students were able to retain what they learned by remembering the actual sensory experiences rather than relying upon memory or cognition alone. 75% of students learn best from sensory experience, so this teaching strategy has important educational implications that are supported by this test.
Curricular Units Adapted from Food is Elementary
The following lessons were adapted and taught to students during the training sessions. Students also learned to prepare recipes that were based upon foods from the garden that Antonia created specifically for this project. They prepared and critiqued the recipes, made illustrated recipe cards along with other graphic materials, and practiced their presentations. These lessons provided students with an understanding of general nutrition principles, cooking techniques, classification of foods, and how what we eat affects our general health including our physical, emotional, and intellectual well-being. Students also learned a basic skill that can greatly enhance the quality of life – how to prepare beautiful, nutritious foods.
Each unit of study included the following:
- Lesson Plans
- Materials for each Student
- Materials for the Classroom
- Learning Outcomes
Lesson 1. Introducing the food pyramid, hand washing, food safety, & knife safety
Lesson 2. Dietary fat
Lesson 3. Food comparisons (fat & sugar), labels, & shopping
Lesson 4. Exercise
Lesson 5. Vitamins
Lesson 6. Whole grains
Lesson 7. Fruits
Lesson 8. Veggies
Lesson 9. Greens
Lesson 10. Legumes
Lesson 11. Food as art
Research Questions
There are two research questions we explored at the school during the pilot phase:
- Education and dietary acceptance of healthy foods
Does exposure to plant-based foods through education result in greater dietary acceptance of these foods by the students?
- Cost analysis
Does incorporating the garden produce in the school’s institutional menu result in an economic benefit to the school?
The Pilot Project was designed to answer these two questions using the resources available at the school. The following process describes the steps we took to ensure that the questions were addressed appropriately. The questions were framed within the existing social context of the school environment with regard to potential benefits to the school and the students, in terms of cost and educational benefits.
RESEARCH QUESTION 1: Education and dietary acceptance
Does exposure to plant-based foods through education result in greater dietary acceptance of these foods by the students?
Development and Investigation
The students were enthusiastic about exploring the plant-based dishes they had prepared at the training, and this seemed a positive indication of their willingness to accept these foods into their diets. Therefore, as a follow through project, a group of students were exposed to more plant-based foods and, at the culmination of the project, they presented some of these foods to the rest of the facility. The classroom exposure to these foods was rooted in explaining the health benefits brought about by eating a balanced diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. The students also dispelled the mysteries surrounding some of these foods by learning how to prepare them in delicious recipes.
At the May training, the pre- and post-tests indicated that the students absorbed the knowledge they were taught in the lessons. Because of the success of these lessons, and the responsiveness of the students, we developed research questions for the continuing project based on the fact that students at the school do indeed retain the knowledge they are presented with in this hands-on, unique education program.
Meredith Reilly, a student at Cornell University, enjoyed working with the students during the training and was delighted to follow through during her Fall 2002 semester. She visited the school and developed a program to teach the students about plant-based nutrition using the hands-on methods in Dr. Demas’ Food is Elementary curriculum.
The school was eager to accept a program that would engage the students and give them the educational and practical tools to improve their own health. Meredith traveled to Byron in September to set things in motion. Michael Grimes, Principal of the school, Lynette Martelle, Culinary Arts Director, and Dan Mr. Smith, Garden Manager, collaborated to create a strategy that worked for all involved.
The population at the school created particular challenges that are important to keep in mind when addressing any special needs group. Within this specific population, the rehabilitation aspects of the program required us to be flexible, especially in terms of logistics and scheduling. Because of the nature of the school, and the fact that students were there on a temporary basis, an individual may leave halfway through an education program. Students’ schedules change, as the court will sometimes mandate them to different educational programs; and the events of a given day are at times unpredictable. There are often acting out events that necessitate the plan of the day to be changed. The logistics of creating a new program in a facility like Orin Allen must be oriented toward the broader goal of reaching the students rather than grounded in rigid expectations. The faculty and staff have a system that works and deserve a great deal of respect for what they do. Therefore, in order for a program to be successful, it must fit within the established framework of the facility with flexibility as a must.
The aforementioned challenges often lead to policies that are disconnected from the realities in which programs actually have to be effective. Anyone developing a program without knowing what the facility is about will encounter obstacles along the way. Even with knowledge of how the facility works, there is a degree of variability in any of the daily activities, and any written policy must be implemented with that in mind. It would be helpful for anyone developing a program within this type of facility to remember that the final program will be a blend between their expectations and the needs of the facility. In the end, this blend results in a plan where everyone can work together to maximally benefit the students.
At this particular facility, there was a framework in place was already geared toward the type of education we were looking to apply – the orientation was student centered. The gardening program was up and running and it followed logically that it be combined with the culinary arts program, as the garden provides nutrient-rich foods that can benefit the entire facility. The fresh, organic produce from the garden can be used by the students in their cooking, and with this produce available to them, the students can easily relate soil nutrients to the nutrients in their meals.
The first research question was a direct result of the students’ enjoyment of cooking the plant-based recipes at the training. If they had a positive experience with these foods, would they be more likely to accept them in their cafeteria meals? We predicted that the individuals who had more extensive exposure to plant-based foods would be more likely to accept, and enjoy, these foods when presented with them in their meals. To test our prediction, we decided to measure student response to a plant-based meal served at the facility.
The students at Orin Allen, much like many people in this country, are hesitant to make changes in their diets, although these changes have well-documented effects on health. Habitualized diet patterns are extremely difficult to change, as food is for many people a very emotional experience. Especially for the individuals at Orin Allen, diet change is a difficult issue because it is one of the few experiences they feel ownership of. Because the students we worked with are in a rehabilitation facility, and their daily lives are very regimented, mealtime may be the only chance they get to exercise control over their environment. The decision of what to eat is a very powerful one, and it was therefore of extreme importance that we show the students the facts and allow their choices to be their own. This way, the results truly demonstrate the effectiveness of our teaching. We expected a great deal of resistance from the students, because the meal we were going to prepare was completely different from the food they were accustomed to eating.
We worked with different groups of students to varying extents, and predicted that the more education they received, and the more personalized their instruction, the greater acceptance they would have of a plant-based meal. The more time spent with students illustrating to them the importance of diet to their health and well-being, the more likely they were to determine that healthy foods are worth trying. In addition, our work in the small group included discussions about changing one’s palate, and the students really understood the concept of “retraining their taste buds” to prefer healthy options they may have never thought they would enjoy.
The levels of education, and our expectations, were as follows.
| Education Level | Predicted response to plant-based meal |
|---|---|
| No exposure (Control Group) | little to no acceptance; resentment |
| Brief introduction to meal with peers presenting foods (Peer Interaction Group) | slight acceptance; some hostility |
| Instruction in the homeroom class (Homeroom Group) | moderate acceptance |
| Homeroom Instruction in addition to Peer Interaction | moderate acceptance to acceptance |
| More detailed instruction, cooking in a small group, and field trip (Extensive Education Group) | acceptance; enjoyment |
Method
Extensive Education Group
The school assigned to us a small group of boys to work with throughout the months we were there. The average group size was 4, though it fluctuated depending on schedules. We began teaching these boys in mid-October and worked with them an average of two times per week. During this time, we took a very down to earth approach with the students and engaged them as much as possible by asking questions and soliciting their views. When we asked them questions, we found we could gain a better sense of the knowledge base they had, while giving them a chance to participate in the lessons. We were able to cook a few recipes with this group and take them to a grocery store to teach them how to read food labels and act as more informed consumers. This group provided us with a structure for determining the effect of extensive, personalized education methods on food choices.
Homeroom Group
The homeroom lessons followed the same lesson plan in each of the three homerooms we taught. Each homeroom has about 15 students in it, and the period lasts 45 minutes. When we taught in the homerooms, we used the students from our smaller group to assist us in our demonstrations. The students in the homerooms received information about nutritious foods and the effect of nutrition on their bodies, but did not receive personal interaction the way the students in the small group did.
Summary of Teaching
Extensive Education Group
In this group, each student had more of an opportunity to address his own individualized interest in the area of nutrition. We were able to spend time getting to know the students and discussed their specific interests as well as completing more in-depth lessons that included preparation of meals. This group was the most challenging in terms of scheduling conflicts, and we adjusted our agenda after the first week because the culinary facility was not always availble to us. The activities with the Extensive Education Group included the following.
- The USDA’s Food Pyramid
- Dietary Fat and North African Couscous with Chickpeas
- Additional Dietary Fat Lesson
- Creating Nutritious Holiday Traditions – Healthy Halloween Celebration
- Pumpkin Patch
- Label Reading and Decoding
- Applying the Knowledge: Becoming a Conscientious Consumer
- Exploring Possibilities: A Feast for the Ranch
As our program goals evolved to fit the needs of the school, Chief Deputy Probation Officer Jim Matheron suggested that we cook a meal for the entire facility in addition to our culinary lessons with the small group of students. A meal like this would give all of the students an opportunity to experience different types of food and report to us their opinions. The meal began to shape our research questions in a more defined way.
The materials for the meal were provided by the facility, and the head cook, Jess, was remarkably accommodating and congenial. He agreed to assist us in preparing the meal, and we developed the menu. The students in the EE group were assigned to kitchen duty that evening and aided in the preparation of the meal. We adapted the original menu that was planned for the school that evening into a plant-based menu that mirrored the original. The adaptations were as follows.
| Original Menu | Plant-Based Menu |
|---|---|
| breaded veal | cornflake-crusted tofu with mushroom gravy |
| green beans | green beans |
| rice pilaf | brown rice with sesame seeds |
| green salad | green salad |
| bread and butter | whole wheat rolls |
| lime Jell-O | raw fruit tart |
| chilled milk | soy milk |
The students were excellent, motivated and creative workers in the kitchen. They asked a great deal of questions and were motivated by the success of their creations. Before the meal, the students introduced the different foods to their peers, and each student discussed the dish he had helped create. The students demonstrated their ability to articulate what they had learned about these dishes to their peers, and their comments were able to demystify foods that many of the students had never experienced before. The students who received this introduction to the food experienced the meal in a positive, supportive atmosphere where they understand the purpose of trying these new foods. We termed these students the Peer Interaction Group.
Homeroom Group
The lesson plan we used during the homeroom classes was based in the Food is Elementary curriculum (Demas 2001) and developed by putting some of the essential concepts together in a condensed format. We used a question and answer style of teaching, and the students were very responsive to the material.
Homeroom Lesson
- Introduction: Defining healthy and unhealthy nutrition
- Explanation: Discovering why excess fat intake is detrimental to your health
- The Food Pyramid
- Question/Answer
Evaluation and Analysis
Meredith devised a series of graphics to evaluate results. Before and after the dinner meal, each of the students completed a survey about their perceptions of the institutional menu, their preconceptions about soy products, and their enjoyment of these products if they had in fact tried them. The results were tabulated and for each of the questions, the number of responses reported from both before and after surveys.
Unfortunately, one of the obstacles in tabulating the surveys was some missing data from the Extensive Education group. Some of the students in the group completed either the before or after survey, but not both, resulting in incomplete information for these individuals. We will obtain the results from these students, via phone interview or mail, as the Extensive Education group is a key part in examining the effects of individualized instruction. The additional interviews will give us a chance to obtain follow-up results from these students and assess longer-term affects of the education program. The results for the incomplete surveys, along with all the detailed results, are available in the appendix, and are termed “EE – before (or after) only.” These surveys are not included in the charts and analysis, but they did indicate consistency with the completed EE surveys.
Responses
In general, it was evident from the results that those individuals who received more education had a more positive response to the introduced foods. A noteworthy aspect of the responses was the effectiveness of peer interaction that they demonstrated. The students showed the effectiveness of the education program most notably when they received the meal in a positive atmosphere supported by their peers.
The responses to the question about balanced diets (see Chart 1) reflect student understanding of this concept and their willingness to report their understanding in a written format. The results indicate that reported answers may be more closely related to willingness to answer the question than to actual knowledge. The groups that received interaction with their peers, and as a result experienced the food in a more positive atmosphere, had higher reported knowledge than those who received some education but received the food in a more negative environment, without an introduction to or explanation of the meal. The fact that students who shared peer interaction in common had correct response levels that were highly correlated is a good indicator that in order for individuals to put effort into answering this type of question, they require an environment that supports their effort. In reality, education alone is not sufficient in changing the student response; rather, it is only in an encouraging setting that education truly shows its merit.
Chart 1. Knowledge of balanced diets
It is also evident that the groups with more nutrition education rated the plant-based meal as being a balanced meal more often that those with less education. In fact, it is remarkable to note that the groups receiving more education rated the standard cafeteria meals as being less balanced and the plant-based meal as being more balanced as education level increased. Here, also, the effect of a positive peer environment is evident.
Chart 2. Perception of received meals
The student perception of the vegetables they received presents a slight puzzle. It seems the Control group experienced almost no change in perception between before and after the meal, which is expected; however, the Peer Interaction group and Extensive Education group experienced dramatic contrasting effects (see Chart 3). More members of the PI group acknowledged that the plant-based meal provided them with adequate vegetables, whereas before the experimental meal, their perception of the cafeteria meals was that it is highly lacking in vegetable content. On the contrary, The EE group was more likely to report that the meals in the cafeteria provided sufficient servings of vegetables before the meal, whereas after the meal, they reported the vegetable servings lacking. The most plausible explanation for this conundrum is that the students may have interpreted the question differently. Whereas the EE group may have thought the question on both surveys was referring to the standard fare in the cafeteria, the PI group seemed to have inferred that the question on the after survey was inquiring about the experimental meal.
The fact the students filled out the surveys in their dorms – where none of the researchers were present to answer questions – is an important factor that could have contributed to the misunderstanding. However, it must be mentioned that despite the misperceptions, the students who received education and peer interaction were able to identify a lack of vegetables in their usual meals. This implies that more vegetables in the meals would improve student perception of their diets.
Chart 3. Perception of vegetables in the diet
One of the most dramatic results we received was the responses to the amount of milk in the meals (see Chart 4). With increasing levels of education, the groups indicated that they believed there to be too much milk in their everyday meals; in addition, this response increased after the plant-based meal, in which we served no dairy products. This is a positive indicator that with exposure to different types of diets, students realize that the standard commercialized diet that is promoted in this country is not necessarily the best for their bodies. They begin to envision a way of eating that uses moderation and respect for the body as its motivating force. These striking results are evidence of the students’ ability to recognize diet change as a positive act.
Chart 4. Perception of milk in the diet
We received a wonderful response to the dessert we prepared, which was a tart of raw fruit, nuts, dates, and coconut (see Chart 5). Each of the groups had a more positive response to the idea of a fruit dessert after the dinner than they did before, indicating that they received it positively. In addition, the levels of education were positively correlated with reported enjoyment of the dessert.
Chart 5. Enjoyment of dessert
One of the most interesting results was the student response to a plant-based protein. Some of the students had tried tofu before (see Chart 6), and as a result went to the meal with a preconceived notion of what plant-based protein is. As evident in Chart 7, most of the students had similar opinions of the tofu before and after the meal. The Control and PI groups exhibited a slight improvement in their opinion, while the HR/PI Group’s opinion declined slightly. The major point that this information demonstrates is that education creates more positive preconceptions about foods that might be viewed too difficult to integrate into the menu. With this is mind, menu change can be an effective means to changing diet, provided it is coupled with individualized education.
Chart 6. Previous perception of soy products
Chart 7. Response to tofu
The students proved to us that nutrition education programs can be effective in facilities like Orin Allen. Their responses to foods that they were largely unaccustomed to receiving confirmed that education can open the minds of students like these to a healthier way of eating. Their enthusiasm about learning new information and becoming empowered to make better choices was remarkable, and they made a tremendous impact on the articulation and illustration of these ideas
Research Question 2: Cost Analysis
Does incorporating the garden produce in the school’s institutional menu result in an economic benefit to the school?
Development and Investigation
The importance of linking the plant foods we eat with the way they grow is an excellent and practical way to reinforce appreciation for these nutritious foods. It is a well-documented fact that awareness of the way a food grows leads to a more complete enjoyment of that food, and that this inevitably results in higher consumption of these foods when they are available (Beck 2003). In conjunction with the education program at the school, a menu modification that substitutes garden produce for frozen or canned produce would give the students the opportunity every day to consume fresh, organic vegetables that are high in nutrients. In the pilot study, students who received education and peer interaction indicated that the menu in the cafeteria provides too few vegetables, so it naturally follows that under these circumstances, students would have a positive reception to more fresh vegetables in their meals.
Using substitutions of garden produce for frozen and canned vegetables that the school orders, it is possible to offer the same menu for less cost. The food expenditures of facilities like Orin Allen are substantial, and cost is a very important concern in developing the menu, which is designed to serve the students as well as the staff. Enabling the school to save money using readily available, organically grown produce therefore creates financial, educational, and nutritional benefits for the facility.
Garden Facilities and Activities
The Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Facility had been part of the East West Garden Project since December 2000. In collaboration with the Contra Costa County Health Department, the school created and has maintained a garden on its grounds as part of a project to supply fresh, organic produce to poverty areas in the County. Dan Mr. Smith, known to the students as “Farmer Dan,” is Garden Manager, and has devoted a great deal of his time to the program teaching students how to care for the garden. He was an important mentor at the school and gave students the opportunity to see firsthand how the health and success of the garden can lead to the health of their own bodies. The tasks in the garden include planting, cultivating, and watering, as well as working to complete the greenhouse. Through their involvement in these, the students learn valuable skills about growing their own organic produce.
The garden in Byron, California was about an hour and a half north-east of San Francisco, and had two distinct growing periods – colder weather plants such as the ones featured in this curriculum, and warmer weather crops such as tomatoes and peppers. The plants featured in this curriculum can all take a frost with the exception of the beans, squash, and melons. Since these were the foods being grown during the period that we worked with the school, these plants are featured in this curriculum. In addition, many herbs were also grown in the garden. Herbs are easy to grow and can withstand poor soil. Fresh herbs provide an abundance of aromatic flavor to recipes they are combined with. Some of the cultural characteristics of the individual crops grown at the school, along with recipes developed for an open house the students hosted, are featured below.
The garden was planted adjacent to the facility’s classroom buildings in 20 raised wooden beds and a 3-acre fenced corral. Mr. Smith and the students are working to renovate an unused building on the grounds into a greenhouse, and it should be ready within the year. During the warmer season, seedlings are started in the raised beds and transplanted into the corral for the remainder of their cultivation time. During the colder months, seedlings are started in the classrooms at the school, and in the future, they will be started in the greenhouse.
The planting and harvesting schedule was as follows.
GARDEN SCHEDULE
Source: Dan Smith, Garden Manger
| January | in greenhouse onions, celery, tomatoes, early cabbage, lettuce, broccoli, cauliflower, peppers, okra, collard greens, mustard greens, corn |
| February | in greenhouse watermelon, cucumber, and squash |
| March | transplant seedlings early peas, onion, spinach, corn, tomatoes, bell peppers, hot peppers, lettuce, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, eggplant, potatoes |
| April | in greenhouse lettuce, onion, beets, radish, mustard, collard greens, Swiss chard, carrots outdoors peas, beans, garlic, spinach, lettuce, Swiss chard, carrots, beets, turnips, radishes |
| May | transplant seedlings cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, lettuce, celery, squash, melon in greenhouse sweet potatoes harvest corn (also into June) |
| June | cultivate and thin seedlings harvest tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage, lettuce, Swiss chard, radishes, spinach outdoors corn, winter squash, okra, lima beans, watermelons, pumpkins |
| July | cultivate and thin beets, chard and collard greens train or pole-support beans harvest peas, chard, lettuce, radishes, green beans, wax beans, peas, carrots, summer squash, early tomatoes, broccoli, cucumber, cabbage |
| August | thin beets and onions harvest throughout the month corn, pepper, beans, tomatoes, garlic, cabbage, squash, cucumber, okra, cabbage outdoors plant more beets, carrots, spinach, radishes, greens, peas, beans |
| September | harvest tomatoes, peppers, cabbage, corn, broccoli, okra, potatoes, carrots, celery, melons, squashes, peas, sweet potatoes, beans |
| October | in greenhouse broccoli, cabbage, lettuce, onions, turnips, mustard greens, chard harvest cabbage, pumpkins, beets, spinach, lettuce, turnips, carrots, beans, celery, radishes, peas, peppers |
| November | cultivate soil harvest lettuce, cabbage, broccoli, mustard greens, chard, carrots, radish onion |
| December | greenhouse maintenance |
Method
Determining Associated Costs
Like all gardens, the Orin Allen garden had numerous costs associated with its development and maintenance. Because of the educational nature of the garden program, generous donations from organizations in the area have helped offset many of these costs. In addition, the County Health Department contributed a great deal of administrative effort, as well as program development and grant-writing, to aid the program.
Labor
As Garden Manager, Dan Smith worked off a grant from the Greater Richmond Interfaith Program of California (GRIP). He was a part time employee and worked three days per week. When the pilot study began, the school was looking to find new funding for his salary, as the grant period ended that year. In addition to his paid hours, Mr. Smith donated a great deal of his time to the garden. Ideally, the new funding source would allow him to be paid as a full-time employee.
The school had a program called work experience, in which the students work a certain number of hours at various jobs around the grounds, and the garden is one of these work sites. Through the work experience program, Mr. Smith was assigned two small groups of students, one in the morning and one in the afternoon, during the days he worked at the facility. These students helped with garden chores. Because the boys at the facility were mandated to be there by the court of California, they become wards of the State during their time at Orin Allen. Therefore, the work they did is considered part of their rehabilitation program and is done as a learning experience rather than a paid position. Instead of earning wages for their work, the boys earned “hours” that count toward a set goal, depending on their sentence. After they earn their set number of hours, they were released from the facility. In this way, the labor program benefits the students as well as the facility’s garden program.
Planting and Cultivation
The school incurred very little cost for planting and cultivation the garden. The tools and tractor were donated by generous local organizations and farmers. The seeds, as well, were donated on a regular basis by Lockheart Seeds, Johnny’s Seeds, Burpee Seeds, Lake Valley and American Seeds.
The only major expense for the school was the irrigation system, which was a one-time investment that provided a remedy for the high boron content in the school’s water. The water pump, irrigation pipe and tank cost the school a total of $9,000, with a breakdown as follows. The county contributed $2,000 toward these expenses, a fact that is reflected in the calculations. The water tank and irrigation ditch were filled 50 times annually (about once a week).
| Equipment | Initial Cost | Expected Life (years) | Annual Cost (US dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Water tank | 3,000 | 20 | 150 |
| Irrigation pipe | 3,500 | 10 | 350 |
| Water pump | 500 | 10 | 50 |
| Water supply | — | — | |
| Total | 7,000 | — | 550 |
Minor expenses included fertilizer and tractor fuel. The school used both their own compost and manure from a local farm for fertilizer. Dan Smith purchased the fertilizer out of pocket, and the total amounted to $12.50 per month. Since this is a cost that should in all fairness be covered by the school, we have included it in the school’s expenses. The cost of the tractor fuel is divided equally by the school and the county. The fuel cost was $1.13 per acre (Massey 1997), and the plot is cultivated 6 times annually. The resulting annual costs incurred by the school, including water, tractor fuel, and fertilizer, are as follows.
| Tractor Fuel | $13.56 |
| Fertilizer | $150 |
| Irrigation equipment (Initial cost/expected life) | $550 |
| Water supply | — |
| Total | $713.56 |
Determining Garden Yield
Mr. Smith had expanded the garden and was working on transitioning from growing crops in the raised beds as well as in the corral, to growing completely in the corral. The school was recently donated a tractor, which dramatically decreases the time and labor requirements for soil cultivation and makes successful planting in the corral an imminent possibility.
In order to determine how many pounds of produce the garden would produce annually, the average US yield for the given crops was applied to the amount of space in which the crops will grow. The 3-acre fenced corral had a 2-acre plot of viable soil, and each crop was given an equal amount of space, with the exception of corn, which is designated to a 2/3-acre plot. The yield for each crop was then multiplied by the number of plantings per year for each crop, as follows.
| Crop | Average Yield per 100 sq. feet (in US pounds) | Number of Annual Plantings | Projected Yield (US pounds) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Beets | 30 | 2 | 1392 |
| Bell peppers | 57.8 | 1 | 1341 |
| Broccoli | 17.4 | 2 | 807 |
| Cabbage | 45 | 2 | 2088 |
| Carrots | 58.9 | 2 | 2733 |
| Cauliflower | 26.1 | 2 | 1211 |
| Celery | 110 | 1 | 2552 |
| Corn | 15.3 | 2 | 8886 |
| Cucumber | 20.6 | 1 | 478 |
| Garlic | 32 | 1 | 742 |
| Green beans | 8.2 | 3 | 571 |
| Leaf lettuce | 48.6 | 3 | 3383 |
| Lima beans | 5.7 | 1 | 132 |
| Mustard greens | 24.3 | 2 | 1174 |
| Melon | 10 | 1 | 464 |
| Onion | 68.6 | 2 | 3183 |
| Peas | 17.2 | 3 | 1197 |
| Potatoes | 52.6 | 1 | 1220 |
| Radish | 27.5 | 2 | 1276 |
| Spinach | 12.1 | 3 | 842 |
| Summer squash | 22.3 | 1 | 517 |
| Sweet potatoes | 23.6 | 1 | 548 |
| Tomatoes | 30.7 | 1 | 712 |
| Turnips | 27.5 | 1 | 638 |
| Winter squash | 46.5 | 1 | 1079 |
Sources: UC Davis Vegetable Research and Information Center; Average US Pounds Yield, USDA, Agricultural Statistic; Garden of Eden Project; US Office of Transportation Technologies.
Evaluation and Analysis
To determine the potential benefit of using garden produce in the institutional menu, the number of vegetables in the menu was calculated over one month and multiplied to find the annual usage. There were some liberties taken with this tabulation, in that all types of potatoes and tomatoes were considered vegetables. In addition to whole potatoes, we considered dehydrated, boxed Au Gratin potatoes, hash browns and frozen French fries in this category. Similarly, canned tomatoes, tomato puree, and tomato sauce were categorized as tomatoes. As a result the “amounts used” for potatoes and tomatoes are much higher than those for the other vegetables. It may be more difficult to replace these items with fresh produce, but because these substitutions would make the menu more nutritious, we included them in our calculation.
| Crop | Institutional use (US pounds) | Garden Yield | Surplus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Beets | 0 | 1392 | 1392 |
| Bell peppers | 204 | 1341 | 1137 |
| Broccoli | 480 | 807 | 327 |
| Cabbage | 288 | 2088 | 1800 |
| Carrots | 618 | 2733 | 2115 |
| Cauliflower | 0 | 1211 | 1211 |
| Celery | 348 | 2552 | 2204 |
| Corn | 172.8 | 8886 | 8713.2 |
| Cucumber | 96 | 478 | 382 |
| Garlic | 0 | 742 | 742 |
| Green beans | 504 | 571 | 67 |
| Leaf lettuce | 1140 | 3383 | 2243 |
| Lima beans | 0 | 132 | 132 |
| Mustard greens | 144 | 1174 | 1030 |
| Melon | 0 | 464 | 464 |
| Onion | 324 | 3183 | 2859 |
| Peas | 0 | 1197 | 1197 |
| Potatoes | 3660 | 1220 | -2440 |
| Radish | 0 | 1276 | 1276 |
| Spinach | 0 | 842 | 842 |
| Summer squash | 0 | 517 | 517 |
| Sweet potatoes | 504 | 548 | 44 |
| Tomatoes | 2106 | 712 | -1394 |
| Turnips | 0 | 638 | 638 |
| Winter squash | 0 | 1079 | 1079 |
As evidenced by the above table, it is obvious that nearly all the crops have a substantial annual surplus. These surplus crops could be donated to neighboring communities, which would meet an important goal of the East West Garden project. Many of the individuals at the facility live in surrounding areas that are high in poverty and have low access to fresh, organic produce. In this way, the produce would continue to benefit the students even after they are released from the facility. If a surplus still remained, it could be sold in local markets and bring back funds to the school.
The crops that have a negative surplus (i.e., the garden does not yield enough to meet institutional needs) are the aforementioned potatoes and tomatoes. These vegetable and fruit are widely used in the menu, and it would be wise for the school to grow more of these in place of crops that are not used in the menu. Some of the crops that are listed as unused could easily fill the need for frozen mixed vegetables, of which the school used 836 pounds annually. With these substitutions in place, the school would no longer need to order any vegetables, and would save all the funds currently used to do so.
Orin Allen had a food budget which totaled $176,338.56 annually in 2003. Of these funds, $45,654.80 is used to purchase meat products, and $120 was free of cost as USDA commodity foods. Given the extensive food budget at the facility, a menu cost reduction would be a welcome benefit to the budget. The funds used to purchase vegetable products total $8,400 annually; therefore, the school stood to save a great deal by utilizing foods from the garden. Specific vegetable items and their costs are detailed below.
Vegetable Cost at Orin Allen
Source: Orin Allen Youth Rehabilitation Facility storeroom
| Food Item | Cost in US dollars | Unit |
|---|---|---|
| frozen corn | $24.16 | 130 lb case |
| canned corn | $3.51 | can |
| fresh tomatoes | $26.33 | 25 lb case |
| whole tomatoes | $2.04 | can |
| diced tomatoes | $2.67 | can |
| canned mashed potatoes | $5.21 | can |
| whole canned potatoes | $3.44 | can |
| diced dried potatoes | $3.44 | can |
| diced dried potatoes | $16.18 | 65 lb case |
| French fried potatoes | $16.54 | 66 lb case |
| Au Gratin potatoes | $39.54 | 62 lb case |
| potatoes | $10.02 | 50 lb case |
| purple cabbage | $12.60 | 45 lb case |
| white cabbage | $10.66 | 45 lb case |
| lettuce | $12.36 | 24 count |
| spinach (frozen) | $24.02 | 23 lb case |
| peas (frozen) | $19.13 | 30 lb case |
| green beans | $22.42 | 30 lb case |
| baby carrots | $4.89 | 5 lb case |
| whole carrots | $14.08 | 50 lb case |
| bell peppers | $24.79 | 25 lb case |
| cucumbers | $11.21 | 25 lb case |
| frozen broccoli spears | $24.09 | 30 lb case |
| frozen mixed veggies | $21.20 | 64 lb case |
| frozen hash browns | $16.18 | 65 lb case |
| frozen California veggie blend | $22.15 | 30 lb case |
| frozen peas and carrots | $22.25 | 30 lb case |
| canned green chili peppers | $28.46 | case |
| canned jalapenos | $4.20 | can |
| canned sweet peas | $3.48 | can |
| celery | $11.82 | can |
| onions | $9.21 | 50 lb case |
| garlic | $8.56 | 5 lb case |
| mustard greens | $24.28 | 23 lb case |
| Average Annual Cost, US dollars | $8,400 |
The finances the school would save using this method were offset only by the annual costs of running the garden previously outlined. In order to make best use of the vegetable yield from the garden, it was essential that the school develop a method of preserving the vegetables they intend to use on site. There are numerous preservation techniques available for this purpose, many of which are simple and low-cost. The following section outlines some basic preservation techniques and methods.
Preservation of Seasonal Crops
Food preservation was a survival necessity for our ancestors. If they had not learned how to preserve seasonal crops, there would have been many more periods of famine in our history. Many of the early techniques were developed before the dangers of bacteria growth and mold were scientifically understood. It is safe to assume that stomach upset was common during the winter months due to varying levels of spoilage and contamination of preserved foods. Indeed, this is one reason that the spice trade became so important. Spices can act as preservatives, and they can mask the flavor of tainted foods. They can also break the monotony of a limited diet. It is no wonder that fertility and harvest festivals have been a common theme throughout cultures as they symbolize the hope or realization of a more varied diet. The advent of canning, freezing, and refrigeration revolutionized human eating habits.
Plant foods generally have a limited period of availability, depending upon climate. Cold climates cannot be expected to provide availability of locally grown produce during the winter. Currently, in the United States, we have access to foods from around the world, twelve months of the year. This is a recent development in human history and one that needs to be examined in terms of the use of the resources necessary to allow this to occur. From a nutritional perspective, the most nutrients available in a food are available at harvest, just as the food reaches its peak in ripeness. When foods are transported across continents and spend weeks travelling, the quality of the item and its nutrient content begins to erode. The food industry has responded by breeding crops that will not be damaged or decay as readily when transported. A classic example is the hard tomatoes that are ubiquitous during the winter. They bear no resemblance in taste or appearance to a vine-ripened tomato grown on organically fed soil.
The Orin Allen school garden presented a challenge in terms of making maximum use of seasonally harvested produce. Because many crops become ripe over a relatively short period of time, it is essential to have a plan in place to either preserve these items or to sell them as cash crops to produce income for the school. School gardens should have a two-fold purpose: to teach students about the life cycle of plants within the context of the environment, and to provide high quality foods for students to consume in their diets. The second purpose requires that a preservation plan be part of the educational strategy.
There are a wide array of preservation techniques available to us today. These include canning, freezing, drying, root cellars or cold storage, sprouting, and dehydration. It is important to anticipate yields and preservation techniques in advance so that the necessary materials will be ready when the time comes to harvest. The culinary arts program at Orin Allen had done some preliminary preservation to acquaint students with the process. To save money and ensure that students would have dietary access to the foods they had grown, a comprehensive plan, coordinated with the garden schedule, needed to be in place. An advantage Orin Allen had over other public schools is that it is a residential facility and the students are there year-round. An active food preservation program could save the facility a substantial amount in food costs and provide students with a further link between the gardening and culinary arts programs.
Evaluation and Analysis
The gardening program at the Orin Allen facility was in its early stage of development in 2003. All of the pieces were in place to make this a dynamic educational program that could save money for the school. Unfortunately, continued funding was not available and the program did not continue to grow as anticipated. The impact of teaching students how to grow and prepare recipes to be consumed at their school made the garden more significant when students were able to learn how to transform the homegrown produce into delicious, nutritious meals. It is clear that if the garden was completely planted on the currently cultivated land in the corral, that a substantial amount of food could be grown. This food needed to make it into the menu so that the kitchen staff could quit buying produce. From a nutritional point of view, the benefits of using the fresh organic produce versus the current use of primarily canned produce, are enormous. The school only takes advantage of $30 of USDA commodity foods per quarter. These are free foods and healthy commodity use should be increased to save costs. Because the school has a gardening and culinary arts program, an active preservation program needed to be put into place. There was enormous potential at the Orin Allen facility to make widespread use of the school garden in the daily diet of the students, which would have positive health, financial, and educational benefits.
Conclusion
More extensive research exploring the relationships between nutrition and behavior is critical, as the public and scientific community have been resistant to accepting this information. We have long associated crime with social and environmental causes, but criminal behavior needs to be looked at also from a biological perspective. The notion that crime is a social or environmental problem is profoundly embedded within our society’s ideology. We need to take a serious look at the nutrient factors that may be guiding emotion and anti-social behaviors.
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